达尔文进化论提出,上帝缺席。从尼采的“上帝死了”到道金斯《自私的基因》,从人们对失去上帝的震撼到人不过是基因复制载体的普遍观念。意义、价值从缺席的迷茫到人主动的解构。资本主义、世界工厂、全球贸易、信息互联,人的物质性收益越来越丰厚;但自然环境似乎有恶化趋势:世界大战、局部战乱、恐怖主义、文化领域中普遍的平庸、娱乐业普遍的惊悚恶俗、个人生活空间被工作剧烈压缩……不用再多举例,我们的精神生活似乎并未随物质丰富而丰盈起来。
该书的前提是承认没有精神上的上帝,人就是基因复制的载体,那么人生存的意义是什么?
两套系统
从基因的角度看,人的确是被DNA编码的碳基“机器人”。但与目前的机器人概念不同的是:即使最科幻的机器人概念,机器人也是被牢牢束缚在程序之中的。也就是作者所说的“强约束”。只有人的大脑中是弱约束,基因仅仅植入了“做你认为最好的选择”这样的宽泛指令,剩下来的主动权在人自己。
作者将人的认知分为两大系统:一是自发式系统,与生存繁衍相关;二是分析性系统,这可能是进化的副产品。分析式系统可以反思、建立符号表征系统。但是人的分析系统很脆弱,容易被文化、宗教等模因(meme)覆盖。
在现在弥漫的广告环境下,所谓思考大多数可能只是自发是系统引发的反应而已。不过是一种模因的复制。
复制意味着机械化,意味着价值和意义被稀释。现在的网络信息、现代市场经济倾向于大规模复制,所谓规模经济、标准化。人要逃离这种工具理性被复制命运,建立自身存在的意义,并非易事:或许要牺牲消费,生活慢一点,给自己反思的空间和时间。这一点,作者提到了现代公司。“现代公司极端强调工具理性,所谓人力资源跟土地资源、生物资源本质上是一回事,人对于公司来说不过是一种工具罢了。公司不需要人的主动性、所谓创造性仅仅圈定在公司业务领域范围。相比现代公司,所有打工者都是“韭菜”。这里作者有段精彩表述:除了小额的捐款之外,公司显然不在乎符号价值(任何看重符号行为的公司超过底线就会迅速在市场上被消灭)。他们也不参与欲望之间的斗争,在利润和更高阶偏好之间徘徊。公司,就像活在严酷环境下的动物一样,实现着被我们称之为约束性的工具理性。倾向于歌颂人类理性、过于乐观的经济学家也倾向于分析没有选择的情境。或者,更具体地说,他们分析的情境设定会无情地剥削没有做出工具性最优选项的人”。
自然的奇迹:符号与表征
大脑最特别或者说自然最奇迹的创造在于,人能够表征:通过运用符号,人可以思考没有实体的事物。人运用逻辑规则抽象、推理、判断;运用语言表达、内省、交流。作者举了一个非常有趣的例子——囤书。买书人的未必想看这书,更可能是表征自己的身份——构建博学多识的内在个人形象。
再加上这套系统是弱约束的,人的自由正体现在对这套系统的运用。但从生理学上看,这套系统是进化晚期出现的,没有自发式系统强壮,且能量消耗巨大,所以大脑、心智一般不轻易调用该系统。而对于如何调用该系统,人的研究才刚刚起步。认知科学、心理学是一门新兴学科,但作者告诉我们:人不仅仅是生存机器,也不仅仅是境遇的产物,人是能够自我建构,也是可以自我完善的。通过内省、自我控制、自我创造,人能够通过大脑更高阶的系统克服自发系统中庸俗的一面,建立从自我存在的意义。
如何调用高阶系统
所谓弱约束,即人类大脑并不把生存繁衍机械化流程程序刻入基因,而仅仅对碳基化合物下达一个通用指令“活下去,做你认为最好的选择”,至于怎么实现这个目标,人有一定灵活的方式。这一系统书中成为理性生物独特的分析性系统,即能够反思、评估爬虫脑的欲望,再行动的系统。这一弱约束给予人掌控自己生活的一定自由度。
作者这样定义理性:“理性的一个核心部分,就是在个人水平上实现目标最优化”。“工具理性能跟基因最优化相互分离。当我们加载理性思维的工具时,我们加载的是分析式系统能运行其中以便实现弱约束目标的软件,而这种弱约束目标能使得个人行为最优化。学习一种理性思维的工具,能很快、很有用地改变行为和推理,就像一个大学生学会了逻辑规则之后,他阅读到社论专页,就会进行新的反思。相比之下,进化改变就像是冰山极其缓慢地移动一样,难以觉察”。这里狭义理性即工具理性指的是逻辑思维系统,而广义理性、要求我们对进入工具性计算的信念和欲望持有批判态度。
从这里开始,人不再是道金斯笔下的“生存机器”:由于分析式系统能够对人生存繁衍的基本欲望进行评估、反思、批判,直至采取与动物欲望截然相反的行动(通过广义理性)实现人自身的最优化而不是基因的复制目标。我们大脑的分析式系统最终使机器人能够反叛内置的基因程序设置。
这里的意义在于:既然基因对CPU大脑程序设置仅仅有一个通用指令,人本质上必然要通过理性反思来确定自己的人生道路。确定意义、价值不仅仅是学术、理论、言辞而是内在于人性的渴求。如果复制繁衍是基因的目的,那么追求彼岸、超脱肉身的泅渡过程则是根植于人性的需求。人不仅要吃饭而且还要以意义、价值、审美饲养心灵。这就是作者所说的人是追求表征的动物。人既有动物性为生存顺应或改造环境的一面,也有献身虚无的符号、象征意义的一面。
符号、表征贯穿人类文明史:巫术、宗教以至于阶级斗争中的意识形态、现代社会的广告,无不是携带意义的符号、表征在争夺人的注意力。这些符号、表征即为虚无版基因——道金斯创造性得称之为迷因meme。
理性的功能就是利用大脑的分析式系统,对这些符号表征进行评估、反思,适应人最优化的,就把这些符号表征缓存入自发式系统,方便调用、进一步传播;如果评估后不适用人最优化目标,则将这些符号表征予以淘汰。
这个时候,运用理性对符号表征进行评估就尤为重要。这些技能包括:“形成跟证据相一致的结论,评估共变,处理概率信息,校正信念程度,认识逻辑意义,对于不确定程度形成一致评估,拥有能最大化效用的一贯偏好,思考替代假设,做出一致判断。有许多项目都教授和培训这些技能”。
总的来说,作者所谓理性不仅基于逻辑思维的算法,而更偏重合理假设、价值评估、抽象推理等更为广义的理性思考方式。上述技能也许因为近来进化形成的模块,人并不天生擅长调用分析式理性思考模块。而现代教育由于过分看重智力因素,而对于理性思维技能的培养相对“冷淡”。在作者看来,希特勒、高智商犯罪、高学历恐怖分子就是典型的患有理性障碍——智力充分,但不能理性的思考和行动。也是我们日常生活中经常见到的“聪明人干蠢事”,还有更可怕的“聪明人干邪恶的事”。
实际上,智商高不等于有理性,有知识未必有智慧。缺乏理性思维,在现代提倡效率的时代,“实际上,人们通常做什么,那时还会做什么,只不过更有效率而已。如果有了更强的短时记忆能力,我想,人们将会:继续使用无效的医疗手段,继续做出同样糟糕的财务决策,继续投票反对切身利益,继续错误地评估环境风险;而且,继续做其他的次优化决定”。
“一个具有一般智力的理性思考者,也许会在执行计划的时候比较慢。然而,根据工具目的分析,那个计划是最优化的。相比之下,一个不理性的计划,无论被强大的算法机制执行得多么有效,都不能最大化人们的个人效用”。通俗讲就是战略错了,战术再好也没有用。正如作者所说“我们做这些事情,几乎跟从前一般无二,唯一的不同在于:有了更强算法水平的计算能力之后,我们做得更快了”!
现代社会,充斥着广告等说服性符号系统,“在一个符号取向的后工业化社会,呈现在我们面前的总是纸笔问题!我们现在了解的关于世界的大部分知识,都不是来自对真实事件的感知,而是来自预处理、预包装的抽象信息,它们被压缩成符号代码,比如概率、百分比、表格和图示(在今日的美国,数以万计的统计信息定期呈现,涌入人们的大脑)”。而人生重大的决策如升学、专业、工作、婚姻、养老往往都是“一次性”决策事件。一旦决策失误,将对个人生活造成难以挽回的负面影响。因此在这样的社会,正确决策不仅取决于掌握的信息量,更取决于个人的思考深度:调用分析式系统,识别并克服思维偏差,利用逻辑和概率合理的假设、推断,脱钩无效信息、评估和反思自发式系统,然后行动。
回答最核心的那个问题:人生存的意义是什么?摆脱内置在DNA中的令基因复制繁衍的硬约束编码;利用DNA范指令,调用人特有的理性高阶思维,通过反思、评估,做自己认为最好的选择。
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